1821 Independence Milestones

At the start of the war of independence, the Greeks had been under the Turkish yoke for almost 400 years. The Greeks faced the Ottomans, a well-established world power for 400 years. The Greeks did not have a regular army, centralised government or military command, let alone materials for waging war, or funds for the struggle. However, the Greeks had a desire for liberty and religious freedom. As Kolokotronis said “Greeks, God has signed our Liberty and will not take his signature back.” As God blessed David against Goliath, so He blessed the Greeks in their struggle. The Peloponnese was the heartland of the revolution.

On 25 March 1821, the revolution was declared by Metropolitan Germanos of Patras, who raised the banner with the cross in the Monastery of Agia Lavra (near Kalavryta). The early phase of the struggle resulted in many victories for the Greeks. On 17 March 1821, a force of 2,000 under the command of Petros Mavromichalis advanced on Kalamata, where they united with troops under Kolokotronis, Nikitaras and Papaflessas. The Greeks captured strategic cities (Kalamata, Kalavryta and Patras) in the Peloponnese. By the end of March 1821, the Greeks controlled the countryside, while the Turks were confined to the fortresses in the Peloponnese. The battle for central Greece was more complicated and dangerous. Athanasios Diakos led successful attacks on Phocis and Salona.

The initial Greek successes were followed by defeats at the battles of Alamana and Eleftherohori against the army of Omer Vrioni, and Albanina, the Ottoman commander in the Roumeli. The Greeks managed to halt the Turkish advance at the Battle of Gravia. Odysseas Androutsos and a handful of men, inflicted heavy casualties upon the Turkish army. However, Omer Vrioni managed to defeat Androutsos’ forces and cause a Greek retreat. A Greek force of 2,000 men managed to destroy a Turkish relief army on its way to Vrioni. This caused the Turks to abandon Attica in September and retreat to Ioannina.

By the end of 1821, the revolutionaries had managed to temporarily secure their positions in Central Greece. Soon after the start of the war, the Greeks took control of three important islands: Hydra, Spetses and Psara. This effectively gave the Greeks control of the sea. The Greek ships were not designed for warfare and were only equipped with light guns and armed seamen. In contrast, the Ottoman fleet was designed for war, well equipped and under central command. In this uneven fight, the Greeks made good use of fire ships (πυρπολικά or μπουρλότα).

On the island of Lesvos, at Eresos, on 27 May 1821, the Greeks under Dimitrios Papanikolis used a fire ship to successfully destroy an Ottoman frigate. Throughout the war, fire ships were used 59 times and were successful 39 times. A notable example, which attracted international fame was the destruction of the Ottoman flagship by Konstantinos Kanaris at Chios, after the Ottoman massacre of the island’s Greek population in June 1822. Conventional naval actions were also fought, at which naval commanders like Andreas Miaoulis distinguished themselves.

After the initial Greek successes in the Peloponnese, the tide changed in favour of the Ottomans when Sultan Mahmud II enlisted the support of Mehmet Ali, the pasha of Egypt. In 1825, Mehmet Ali’s son, Ibrahim landed at Methoni, in the Peloponese, with a well-trained Egyptian force. Ibrahim engaged in a scorched earth campaign. Kolokotronis could not stem Ibrahim’s advance. Ibrahim came within striking distance of Nafplion. The city was saved by Makriyannis and Dimitrios Ypsilantis who successfully defended Miloi at the outskirts of Nafplion. Ibrahim sent an envoy to the Greeks of Mani (a costal region on the southern Peloponnese) demanding that they surrender or else he would plunder their land as he had done to the rest of the Peloponnese. The Maniots simply replied: “From the few Greeks of Mani and the rest of the Greeks who live there, to Ibrahim Pasha. We received your letter in which you try to frighten us, saying that if we don’t surrender, you’ll kill the Maniots and plunder Mani. That’s why we are waiting for you and your army. We, the inhabitants of Mani, sign and wait for you.”

Ibrahim’s army of 7,000 men was held off by an army of 2,000 Maniots and 500 refugees from other parts of Greece until Kolokotronis attacked the Egyptians from the rear and forced them to retreat. The Maniots pursued the Egyptians all the way to Kalamata. Simultaneously, Ibrahim sent his fleet further down the Maniot coast in order to outflank the Greek defenders and attack them from the rear. However, when his force landed at Pyrgos Dirou, they were confronted by a group of Maniot women and repelled. Ibrahim again attempted to enter Mani from central Laconia, but again the Maniots defeated the Turkish and Egyptian forces at Polytsaravo. The Maniot victory dealt the death blow to Ibrahim’s hope of occupying Mani.

The Egyptian involvement in the Peloponnese moved the European Powers (predominantly England, France and Russia) from a position of neutrality to an interventionist position in favour of the Greeks. The Treaty of London (1827), envisaged the creation of an autonomous Greek state, still under the authority of the Sultan. The Greeks agreed to the intervention of the European Powers. The Sultan refused this intervention. The allied fleets in the Mediterranean were instructed to secure an armistice but without engaging in hostilities. The cost of the protracted negotiations was a deteriorating military situation in Greece.

In April 1826, an attempt by the inhabitants of Messolonghi to lift Ibrahim Pasha’s siege resulted in a massacre. Thousands of Greeks were killed, many more were enslaved. Many who remained behind decided to blow themselves up with gunpowder rather than be enslaved. The massacre at Messolonghi brought unprecedented international support for the Greek cause. This support was critical in the Battle of Navarino. In October 1827, a large Ottoman fleet was anchored at Navarino bay (near modern day Pylos, on the western coast of the Peloponnese). The Ottomans refused to renounce hostilities. Admiral Codrington, the commander of the combined British, Russian and French fleet, destroyed the Ottoman fleet on 20 October 1827. Out of 89 Ottoman ships, only 14 survived. This victory ensured that independence would be granted to the Greeks.

Despite the defeat of his navy, the Sultan refused to grant independence. In April 1828, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. In the Russo-Turkish war, the Ottoman armies suffered major losses. At the end of the war, the Russians forced the Ottomans to concede large territories to the Greeks. In 1832, the new Greek territory extended south of the line extending from Volos to Arta. Prince Otto of Bavaria accepted the Greek crown. In 1832, the Ottoman Sultan recognised Greek independence with the Treaty of Constantinople.

The Greek War of Independence was a heroic struggle. At the start of the war, there was no surety of success. The stark facts favoured the Ottomans. At times, the Greeks were hopelessly divided. During the struggle, there were two Greek civil wars. At times, there were two Greek governing assemblies. Against all odds, the Greeks succeeded. As Kolokotronis said “When we revolted, we said first for our Christian Faith and then for the Nation.” God does not forget those who love Him.

Source: Lychnos June – July 2021